Néstor Kirchner Gas Pipeline

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The Néstor Kirchner Gas Pipeline, also known as the Vaca Muerta Pipeline or the Vaca Muerta–Brazil Pipeline, is an operating gas pipeline in Argentina.

Location

The initial phase of the Néstor Kirchner pipeline runs from Tratayén in the Vaca Muerta shale fields to a connection with TGS's Neuba II gas pipeline at the Saturno compression plant near Salliqueló (Buenos Aires province).[1][2][3][4][5] Along the way, its route passes through additional compressor stations at Casa de Piedra, Chacharramendi and Doblas.[6]

The pipeline's second phase, originally proposed to extend from Salliqueló to San Nicolás de los Arroyos in Buenos Aires province[1][2][3], is now projected to extend from Salliqueló to San Jerónimo in Santa Fe province[4][5], passing through compressor stations at Las Toscas and La Angelita.[6]

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Project Details

  • Operator: Transportadora Gas del Centro (TGC)[7]
  • Owner: Energía Argentina SA (formerly IEASA)[5][8][9]
  • Capacity:
    • Phase 1: 21 MMcm/d[10]
    • Phase 2: 20 MMcm/d[11]
  • Length:
  • Diameter:
  • Status:
  • Start Year:
  • Cost
    • Phase 1: 2 billion[12] to 2.8 billion[13][17] USD
    • Phase 2: 2.5 billion USD[7]
  • Financing
    • Phase 1: Public funding from Argentine federal government[17]
    • Phase 2: Private funding[7][13][17], to be determined by government tender in late 2024[7]

Background

For years, insufficient transportation infrastructure held back oil and gas production and investment in Vaca Muerta, the world’s second-largest shale fields. In 2018 a two-phase, 1040 km pipeline was proposed, with the goal of bringing gas from the Vaca Muerta shale fields to Argentina's main population centers in and around Buenos Aires.[18]

In October 2018, two of Argentina's largest energy companies, Transportadora Gas del Sur (TGS, controlled by Buenos Aires-based Pampa Energia) and Transportadora Gas del Norte (TGN, controlled by the Italian-Argentine conglomerate Techint), expressed interest in forming a joint venture to develop the new pipeline.[1] In November 2018, at the G20 summit meeting in Buenos Aires, CEO Ray Washburne of the United States' development finance agency OPIC (Overseas Private Investment Corporation) signed a letter of interest to provide a $350 million loan in support of the project.[19][20]

The first, 570-km stage of the pipeline, capable of transporting 15 MMcm/d (530 MMcf/d) and estimated to cost US$800 million[3], would run from TGS's conditioning plant at Tratayén in the Vaca Muerta shale fields to TGS's Saturno compression plant near Salliqueló (Buenos Aires province)[1], where it would connect to TGS's existing transport system to reach Greater Buenos Aires and the coast.[2] The second, 470-km stage would extend from Salliqueló to connect with TGN's transport system near the city of San Nicolás de los Arroyos, in northern Buenos Aires province. The projected cost for both stages was estimated at US$2 billion, with pipeline capacity eventually reaching 40 MMcm/d (1413 MMcf/d). Initial plans called for the first stage to be operational by 2021, with the second stage to be completed by late 2024.[3]

Gas for the project would be fed in from a 150 km gathering pipeline running across 30 production areas within the Vaca Muerta shale fields, including the Bajada de Añelo, Bajo del Choique, La Invernada, Pampa de las Yeguas I y II, Parva Negra Este y Oeste, La Escalonada, Rincón La Ceniza, Los Toldos Norte, Sur, Este y Oeste, La Calera, El Orejano and Sierra Chata areas.[18] In December 2019, TGS completed work on the gathering pipeline and its associated conditioning plant in Tratayén. The gathering pipeline was capable of transporting 60 MMcm/d (2119 MMcf/d), while the initial capacity of the conditioning plant was listed as 5MMm3/d (177 MMcf/d), with additional capacity to be added in expandable modules of up to 2.0 billion cubic feet per day as reserves are developed.[18][21]

In early 2019 Argentina’s Energy Secretariat announced plans for an international tender in which the government would solicit bids for the Vaca Muerta transmission pipeline project, but multiple impediments delayed further development. In November 2019, Argentina's Deputy Secretary of Hydrocarbons and Fuels announced that the deadline for bids had been extended to March 31, 2020, citing the fact that an additional section of pipeline had been added to the project, requiring more time for bidders to prepare, and noting that two potential bidders had expressed concerns about Argentina's ongoing financial crisis.[22]

In March 2020, the Argentine government announced that the tender would be further delayed due to increased credit market challenges posed by Covid-19, the collapse of international oil prices, and Argentina's high country risk rating. In light of these developments, the project was postponed until further notice, with some analysts speculating that it might become economically unviable.[23][24]

In July 2020 Argentina's Hydrocarbons Undersecretary Juan José Carbajales indicated that the government was putting the brakes on the Vaca Muerta pipeline, citing insufficient studies of its economic, technical and environmental feasibility, ongoing credit market challenges posed by Covid-19, the collapse of international oil prices, and Argentina's high country risk rating, while also noting that prospective customers for the Vaca Muerta project might just as easily be served by minor enhancements to the existing Gasoducto del Noreste Argentino gas pipeline. [25][26][27][28]

However, the Argentine government continued to consider alternative means of transporting natural gas from the Vaca Muerta shale fields, most notably reviving a proposal for a longer pipeline that would transport Vaca Muerta gas to Brazil (see below).[25]

In December 2021, the Argentine government was beginning the process again of looking for tenders for the construction of the first section of the pipeline,[4] thanks in part to support from the government of Neuquén.[29]

In February 2022, the Argentine government announced that it had authorized state natural gas buyer IEASA (Integración Energética Argentina SA) to establish a trust to construct the first phase of the pipeline between Tratayen and Salliqueló.[5][8] Initial plans called for the pipeline's construction to be completed by winter 2023.[5] In April 2022, IEASA changed its name to Energía Argentina SA.[9]

In June 2022, Energía Argentina SA began soliciting bids for rights to construct Phase 1 of the pipeline, with plans to conclude the tender process by August 2022.[30] By July 2022, five companies had already placed bids for the project: the Argentine engineering and construction firm BTU; Argentine pipeline operator TGS; a consortium formed by Techint and Sacde; Argentine construction company Esuco SA; and Víctor Contreras-Contreras Hermanos.[15]

In June 2022, Energía Argentina SA signed a contract with Siat SA for the provision of 656 kilometers of 30- and 36-inch pipe for the project.[16] In July 2022, the Unión Transitoria de Empresas (UTE), a joint venture between Techint and Sacde, was awarded the right to construct the first section of pipeline.[31] As of September 2022, Techint and Sacde were reportedly seeking workers to begin construction of the project.[32]

As of July 2022, official company estimates called for the 558-kilometer Phase 1 of the pipeline to be completed by 2023, with the 467-kilometer Phase 2 to be completed afterwards within an unspecified time frame. However, an Energía Argentina spokesperson noted that the 2023 deadline was tight and could present challenges[15], and other observers, including former Argentine Energy Secretary Jorge Lapeña and a top official of Argentina's Federal Organization of Hydrocarbon Producing States, have expressed skepticism about the company's ability to complete the project within the specified time frame.[33] Nevertheless, in August 2022 the government was set to publicly sign the contracts to begin construction, and by September 2022 had begun talks with natural gas producers regarding financing for the second phase of the pipeline.[34][35]

In October 2022, Argentina passed resolutions creating a "customs corridor" to accelerate the importation of construction materials for the pipeline.[36]

According to Energía Argentina's website, the company's goals for the new pipeline include increasing energy supply from Vaca Muerta to Argentina's main population centers and taking a major step towards national energy self-sufficiency.[37]

Start-up of Phase 1

In June and July 2023, the first phase of the pipeline was placed into service, starting with a 29-kilometer segment near Tratayén on June 20, and ending with the official inauguration of Phase 1's full 573-kilometer length on July 9.[13] Phase 1 was reportedly operating at only half of its proposed capacity pending completion of other tasks, most notably the start-up of the Tratayén, Mercedes and Salliqueló compression stations, scheduled for October and November 2023.[13][17]

The Phase 1 section, which was completed in only 178 days (November 16, 2022 to May 12, 2023), immediately facilitated delivery of gas to nearly 6 million customers in the Buenos Aires Metropolitan Area through a connection with the Neuba II pipeline.[12] Gas supplied via the new pipeline was expected to save Argentina between US $1 billion and US $4.3 billion annually through the replacement of imported LNG and other fossil fuels.[12][13]

Expansion of Phase 1 capacity

At the time of its commissioning, Phase 1 had a capacity of 11 MMm3 (11 million cubic meters) per day. Plans called for the segment to achieve a transport capacity of more than 20 MMm3 per day upon completion of the Tratayén, Salliqueló and Mercedes compressor stations later in the year.[13][17]

In July 2024 the Tratayén compressor station was placed into service, raising the pipeline's capacity from 11 MMm3 per day to 16 MMm3 per day.[38]

Planned construction of Phase 2

In July 2023, Argentina's Economy Minister Sergio Massa announced that the government would hold a tender in September 2023 for rights to construct the pipeline's 470-kilometer Phase 2, running from Salliqueló to San Jerónimo.[39][40] However, as of early 2024 the tender process remained stalled under the incoming government of Javier Milei.[41][42]

In June 2024, Argentina's Secretary of Energy, Eduardo Rodríguez Chirillo, announced that the government would launch an international tender for the Phase 2 project, with plans to award a contract in December 2024 and place the new pipeline in service by March 2026.[7]

Proposed extension to Brazil

An additional section of pipeline linking San Jerónimo, Argentina with Uruguaiana, Brazil has been proposed as a way to export large volumes of Vaca Muerta gas to Brazil.[43]

Interest in an Argentina-Brazil gas pipeline dates back to the early 2000s. In 2009, Brazil's government officially approved development of the Uruguaiana-Porto Alegre Gas Pipeline on the Brazilian side of the border, with the goal of importing natural gas from Argentina, but the project was never completed due to Argentina's decision to allocate its gas reserves for domestic consumption rather than export. However, with the discovery of Vaca Muerta's extensive unconventional natural gas reserves, the project has regained momentum.[44]

Recent impetus for the project has been driven by Brazil's desire for less expensive natural gas and Argentina's interest in finding new markets for Vaca Muerta's energy assets.[45] According to a 2020 statement by Argentina's ambassador to Brazil, Daniel Scioli, several parties have expressed interest in developing the project, including private Argentine construction companies, Argentina's two largest oil companies, and an international development agency.[46]

The proposed international pipeline was included in Argentina's July 2020 draft five-year energy plan[25], and Argentine and Brazilian officials met on multiple occasions in 2020 to discuss the project. Guillermo Nielsen, president of the Argentine energy company YPF, met with Brazilian Economy Minister Paulo Guedes at the Davos Forum in Switzerland in January 2020[45], while Brazilian Mining & Energy Minister Bento Albuquerque held two separate meetings concerning the project with Argentina's ambassador to Brazil Daniel Scioli and Argentine Energy Secretary Darío Martínez in September 2020.[47] As of December 2020, the pipeline appeared to be shelved due to the international oil price crash[48], but in August 2021, Brazilian president Jair Bolsonaro indicated that pipeline negotiations were still underway between the two countries.[49]

At the Brazilian border the pipeline would feed into the Uruguaiana-Porto Alegre Gas Pipeline, which is designed to transport gas more than 600 kilometers across the Brazilian state of Rio Grande do Sul. The Brazilian pipeline has an estimated cost of R$ 4.6 billion[44][50] and is expected to take 18 months to build, with its initial capacity of 15 MMcm/d eventually increasing to 30 MMcm/d.[47] Estimated development costs for the Argentine part of the system range from US$ 3.7 billion to US$ 5 billion. The construction time frame for the entire project has been estimated at three years minimum.[46][50][51]

Significant obstacles to an Argentina-Brazil pipeline remain, including financing challenges on both sides of the border, lack of interest from Petrobras (Brazil's state-owned oil company), potentially insufficient Brazilian demand, and Brazil's ability to obtain natural gas from other sources, including pipeline imports from Bolivia, LNG imports from overseas, and the country's own offshore gas fields.[47][50] Décio Oddone, head of Brazil's national energy regulatory agency ANP, has stated that Brazil should prioritize gas imports in the form of LNG over the construction of new pipelines.[52] Documents cited in Argentina's July 2020 draft five-year energy plan also questioned the project's viability, noting that Argentine gas may become less attractive from a cost perspective within the time frame required for completion of the project.[25]

Throughout 2021 and 2022, occasional press reports continued to mention the possibility of extending the pipeline to Uruguaiana and exporting gas to Brazil.[53][54][55]

The July 2023 start-up of Phase 1 of the Néstor Kirchner gas pipeline, coupled with moves to proceed with construction of Phase 2, have prompted the Argentine and Brazilian governments to resume more serious discussions of importing fossil gas from Vaca Muerta into Brazil.[39][40][56][57][58][59][60] Speculation has focused on three possible routes: the direct route northeast from Argentina into Brazil, roughly paralleling the existing Paraná-Uruguayana Gas Pipeline; a route through Uruguay that would take advantage of the existing Southern Cross (Cruz del Sur) Gas Pipeline; or a route through Bolivia making use of the existing Gasoducto Norte (Northern Gas Pipeline).[12][14]

As of June 2024, the prospect of exporting gas to Brazil continued to be a strong impetus for construction of Phase 2 of the Néstor Kirchner pipeline.[7]

Brazil extension location

The 450-kilometer extension would run from San Jeronimo, Argentina to the Argentina-Brazil border near Uruguaiana, Brazil, where it would connect with the Uruguaiana-Porto Alegre Gas Pipeline, allowing for the transport of Argentine gas into southern Brazil.[25]

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Brazil extension project details

  • Owner:
  • Proposed capacity: 30 MMcm/d[25]
  • Length: 450 km / 280 miles[25]
  • Status: Proposed
  • Start Year:
  • Cost:

Opposition

Numerous Argentine and international groups have expressed opposition to the pipeline based on the significant negative social, economic and environmental impacts of shale oil and gas development in Vaca Muerta. Organizations that have spoken out against the project include Argentina's Fundación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales (FARN), the U.N. Committee on Economic, Social, and Cultural Rights, Friends of the Earth, and the Center for International Environmental Law (CIEL).[61]

In a September 2019 statement, Friends of the Earth urged the United States' Overseas Private Investment Corporation (OPIC) to renounce a pair of new Vaca Muerta fracking projects, and to withdraw its support for the Vaca Muerta pipeline, for which OPIC had previously signed a letter of interest offering US$350 million in financing. Friends of the Earth cited five main objections to shale oil and gas development in Vaca Muerta, including devastating global climate implications, financial risk, unsustainable social and environmental impacts, violations of indigenous rights, and procedural flaws that violate Argentine and international law as well as OPIC policy.[62]

The Argentine environmental organization FARN regularly reports on the detrimental impact of shale oil and gas development in Vaca Muerta, documenting such issues as air, soil and water pollution, greenhouse gas emissions, rising cost of living, and health effects such as respiratory illness and cancer.[63][64] EJES (Enlace por la Justicia Energética y Socioambiental) is another Argentine group that publishes frequent reports on the economics, financing and environmental justice implications of the Vaca Muerta project.[65]

Articles and resources

References

  1. ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "El ducto a San Nicolás une TGS y TGN 1.040 Km U$S1.300 Millones". Construar. October 26, 2018.
  2. ↑ 2.0 2.1 2.2 "El Gobierno formaliza la convocatoria para construir el gasoducto de Vaca Muerta | La Voz". La Voz. July 30, 2019.
  3. ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 3.3 "Argentina opens strategic gas pipeline tender". Argus Media. July 31, 2019.
  4. ↑ 4.0 4.1 4.2 "El Gobierno quiere acelerar por DNU el gasoducto de Vaca Muerta". Más Energía. December 14, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  5. ↑ 5.0 5.1 5.2 5.3 5.4 "Argentina's Ieasa Spearheading Vaca Muerta Natural Gas Pipe; In-Service in 2023". Natural Gas Intel. February 22, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  6. ↑ 6.0 6.1 "El Gobierno firmó el contrato de los caños para avanzar con la construcción del Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Infobae. June 16, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  7. ↑ 7.0 7.1 7.2 7.3 7.4 7.5 7.6 7.7 Maza, Agustín (2024-06-11). "El Gobierno estrenará su modelo de financiamiento privado con la segunda etapa del gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Infobae.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  8. ↑ 8.0 8.1 "El Gobierno avanza para aumentar el potencial energético en Argentina con el gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Ministerio de Economía de Argentina. February 14, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  9. ↑ 9.0 9.1 "IEASA volvió a cambiar de nombre y ahora es Energía Argentina". Más Energía. April 22, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  10. ↑ 10.0 10.1 10.2 "Proyecto Gasoducto Presidente Néstor Kirchner - Etapa 1". Energía Argentina. Retrieved 2023-08-03.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  11. ↑ "Proyecto GPNK: Aumento Capacidad de Transporte". Energía Argentina SA. Retrieved 2022-07-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  12. ↑ 12.0 12.1 12.2 12.3 12.4 "El gasoducto incrementará el abastecimiento de gas de Vaca Muerta para seis millones de usuarios del AMBA". TÉLAM. July 9, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  13. ↑ 13.0 13.1 13.2 13.3 13.4 13.5 13.6 13.7 13.8 "Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner: quién lo inició, mapa y qué falta para que esté al 100%". Bloomberg Línea. July 10, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  14. ↑ 14.0 14.1 "Cómo el nuevo gasoducto de 600 km de Vaca Muerta puede ayudar a Argentina a salir de la crisis económica". BBC News Mundo. June 20, 2023.
  15. ↑ 15.0 15.1 15.2 "Se presentaron cinco ofertas para la construcción del Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". TÉLAM. July 8, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  16. ↑ 16.0 16.1 16.2 "Firmaron el contrato para la provisión de cañerías del gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". TÉLAM. June 16, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  17. ↑ 17.0 17.1 17.2 17.3 17.4 17.5 17.6 "Argentina inaugurates President Néstor Kirchner gas pipeline". Oil & Gas Journal. July 7, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  18. ↑ 18.0 18.1 18.2 "Argentina's TGS to build Vaca Muerta gas pipeline, conditioning plant" Reuters, April 3, 2018
  19. ↑ "More Like Texas: US state involvement in the Vaca Muerta mega-project in Argentina" (PDF). Platform / Citizens for Financial Justice. September 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  20. ↑ "Informe N° 117 - Honorable Senado de la Nación (p 373)" (PDF). Jefatura de Gabinete de Ministros, Presidencia de la Nación. August 11, 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  21. ↑ "TGS finalizó las obras del gasoducto de Vaca Muerta". EconoJournal. December 23, 2019.
  22. ↑ Financial crisis delays Vaca Muerta gas pipeline project in Patagonia, Argentina Institute for Energy Economics and Financial Analysis, November 11, 2019
  23. ↑ "Sin financiamiento, aplazan el gasoducto de Vaca Muerta y cancelan obra electrica". El Cronista. March 30, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  24. ↑ "El gasoducto a Vaca Muerta quedó entrampado en la crisis del coronavirus". Diario Río Negro. March 31, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  25. ↑ 25.0 25.1 25.2 25.3 25.4 25.5 25.6 "Nación proyecta un gasoducto "AF - CFK" para Vaca Muerta". Diario Río Negro. July 24, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  26. ↑ "Nación pone en suspenso la construcción del Gasoducto del Centro". Patagonia Shale. July 6, 2020.
  27. ↑ "Nación le baja el pulgar al gasoducto de Vaca Muerta". Diario Río Negro. July 11, 2020.
  28. ↑ "Argentina halts Vaca Muerta gas pipeline project – Kallanish Energy News". Kallanish Energy. July 16, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  29. ↑ "El gasoducto de Vaca Muerta, tema clave de la reunión YPF-Neuquén". Lmnenergia.com (in español). Retrieved 2021-12-16.
  30. ↑ "Lanzan la licitación para la construcción del gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". El Economista. June 3, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  31. ↑ "Techint y Sacde se adjudicaron la construcción del primer tramo del gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". EconoJournal. July 21, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  32. ↑ "Techint y Sacde buscan trabajadores para el gasoducto a Vaca Muerta". Editorial Río Negro. September 2, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  33. ↑ "Escasez de gas: con muchas demoras, el Gobierno apuesta a un gasoducto que aún no licitó". Infobae. May 1, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  34. ↑ Boettner, Mariano (10 August 2022). "Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner: ante empresarios, el Gobierno firmará los contratos para comenzar la construcción". Infobae. Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  35. ↑ Parraga, Mariana (3 October 2022). "RPT-Argentina knocks on gas producers' doors for pipeline financing -minister". Yahoo! Finance (Reuters). Retrieved 28 October 2022.
  36. ↑ "Argentina: Oil and gas - Regulation to accelerate the import process for Vaca Muerta". Baker McKenzie. 12 October 2022. Retrieved 31 October 2022.
  37. ↑ "Proyecto GPNK". Energía Argentina. Retrieved 2022-07-13.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  38. ↑ "Quedó habilitada la planta compresora de Tratayén del Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Mejor Energía. 2024-07-10.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  39. ↑ 39.0 39.1 "En septiembre se licitará la segunda etapa del Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Tiempo Argentino. July 9, 2023.
  40. ↑ 40.0 40.1 "Licitarán en 15 días obras del Gasoducto Norte y convocarán a la segunda etapa para el Néstor Kirchner en septiembre". El Diario AR. July 9, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  41. ↑ Mongelluzzo, Martina. "Qué pasará con el gasoducto Néstor Kirchner y otras obras energéticas en el gobierno de Milei". infobae. Retrieved 2024-03-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  42. ↑ "Enarsa decide sobre la continuidad de la Etapa II del Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner". Runrún energético. 2024-01-17. Retrieved 2024-03-19.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  43. ↑ "De Vaca Muerta a Brasil: un proyecto de u$s5.000 millones". Ámbito. September 21, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  44. ↑ 44.0 44.1 "Projeto de gasoduto Uruguaiana-Porto Alegre volta a ganhar força". Jornal do Comércio. January 1, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  45. ↑ 45.0 45.1 "Argentina acelera gestiones para un nuevo gasoducto entre Vaca Muerta y Brasil". El Cronista. September 14, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  46. ↑ 46.0 46.1 "De Vaca Muerta a Brasil: un proyecto de u$s5.000 millones". Ámbito. September 21, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  47. ↑ 47.0 47.1 47.2 "Argentina busca seguir adelante con planes de gasoducto Vaca Muerta-Brasil". BNamericas. October 1, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  48. ↑ "BNamericas - Argentina shelves Vaca Muerta natgas pipelin..." BNamericas.com. Retrieved 2021-06-17.
  49. ↑ "Brazil in talks with Argentina for gas pipeline from Vaca Muerta - Bolsonaro". Reuters. August 19, 2021.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  50. ↑ 50.0 50.1 50.2 "A Complicated Major Gas Pipeline System on the Drawing Boards in South America". Pipeline Technology Journal. September 18, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  51. ↑ "El gasoducto de Vaca Muerta a Brasil, un proyecto de $s5.000 millones". Vaca Muerta News. September 22, 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  52. ↑ "Brazil prepares for a new phase of investments in LNG terminals". LNG Latin America & the Caribbean. Retrieved 2021-04-17.
  53. ↑ "Cómo es el nuevo sistema de gasoductos que planificó el Gobierno". Ámbito. June 21, 2021.
  54. ↑ "Afirman que el Gasoducto Néstor Kirchner estará listo en 2023". Diputados Bonaerenses. February 20, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  55. ↑ "Las sospechas sobre el gasoducto Néstor Kirchner, bajo la lupa de expertos en energía". Infobae. June 10, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  56. ↑ "Lula confirma intenção de financiar gasoduto na Argentina com o BNDES". EPBR. January 23, 2023.
  57. ↑ Jefferson Klein (January 23, 2023). "Implantação de gasoduto Uruguaiana-Porto Alegre retorna à pauta". Jornal do Comércio.
  58. ↑ "Argentina busca asegurar en Brasil la demanda para el gas de Vaca Muerta". Mejor Energía. March 6, 2023.
  59. ↑ "Cómo es Vaca Muerta, la mega reserva de gas y petróleo en la que invertirá Brasil". Bloomberg Línea. February 14, 2023.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  60. ↑ "En 2023 sin gasoducto no habrá paraíso". Infobae. October 9, 2022.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  61. ↑ "Members of Congress, Argentinian and U.S. groups call on OPIC to reject financing for fracking in Argentina". Friends of the Earth. September 10, 2019.
  62. ↑ "The U.S. Government Should Steer Clear of Argentina's "Dead Cow"" (PDF). Friends of the Earth. September 2019.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  63. ↑ Sosa, Eduardo (February 2021). "Efectos, impactos y riesgos socioambientales del megaproyecto Vaca Muerta" (PDF). FARN (Fundación Ambiente y Recursos Naturales).{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  64. ↑ María Marta di Paola (December 2020). "Vaca Muerta, excerpt from the report 'Five Years Lost: How Finance is Blowing the Paris Carbon Budget' (pp 34-37)" (PDF). FARN, EJES, Urgewald et al.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)
  65. ↑ "Vaca Muerta y el desarrollo argentino: balance y perspectivas del fracking" (PDF). EJES (Enlace por la Justicia Energética y Socioambiental). May 2020.{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link)

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