Bravo Dome

From Global Energy Monitor

Bravo Dome is a 99% pure natural carbon source field located in northeastern New Mexico, operated primarily by Occidental. The carbon produced there is crucial for oil drilling as an injectant for CO2 enhanced oil recovery in Texas' Permian Basin and the Postle Oil Field in Oklahoma, both of which are fields in which CO2 EOR for Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage takes place. It is one of the five major producing Natural CO2 Source Fields in the United States and is 1.17 million acres in size, as well as 8% federal land and 27% state land.[1]

Bravo CO2 Pipeline from the Bravo Dome to the Permian Basin. Credit: PipelineSafety.Info

The Bravo Dome carbon is sent via the 218-mile Bravo Pipeline to Texas' Permian Basin[2] and via the 120-mile Transpetco/Bravo Pipeline to the Postle Oil Field located near Guymon, Oklahoma on the state's panhandle.[3][4] From there, the produced carbon is injected under the ground to free up an additional 8-20% of oil. CO2 EOR is also sometimes called "carbon flooding" or "tertiary recovery."[5]

Transpetco CO2 Pipeline from the Bravo Dome to the Postle Oil Field. Credit: U.S. Department of Energy








Natural carbon dioxide is currently the source of over 80% of the CO2 for CO2 EOR in the United States[6] and CO2 EOR currently is the final carbon sink for nine of the ten biggest U.S.-based Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects currently commercially operational.[7]

Traditionally known as CCS, CO2 EOR is a central component of a rebranding effort which began in 2012 known as CCUS, or carbon capture utilization and storage. The "U" in CCUS, in this case, is using carbon to drill for more oil.[8]According to a 2014 U.S. Department of Energy study, 97% of the industrial marketed carbon is used for CO2 EOR.[9]

A 2020 study concluded that CO2 enhanced oil recovery using CO2 source fields like the Jackson Dome, McElmo Dome, Bravo Dome, Sheep Mountain, and Doe Canyon “cannot contribute to reductions in anthropogenic CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.”[10]

Multiple studies have also called into question the climate benefits of CO2 EOR production even with anthropogenic carbon, pointing to the process as a net-positive greenhouse gas emitting process.[11]

Location

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Field Details

  • Start Year: 1980[12]
  • Operators: Occidental[13] (Kinder Morgan Energy Partners also a non-producing leaseholder)[14]
  • Location: Union County, Quay County, and Harding County New Mexico, United States
  • Proved reserves: 4.6 TCF[15] 28 active wells.
  • Production: 405 MMSCFD/day[16]
  • Active Production Wells: 627
  • Status: Operating

Comparison to Oil, Gas Drilling

An industry engineer told the outlet Capital & Main that CO2 drilling is akin to drilling for oil and gas, at its core.

“It’s really the same tools, the same equipment, the same calculation going on. It’s just using different types of numbers,” the engineer stated. “But you find a CO2 source field, which obviously can be several thousand feet underground, and you move a drilling rig in and you drill for it.”[17]

History/Background

The CO2 at the Bravo Dome was first discovered by accident in 1916 in a search for oil by prospectors in New Mexico.[18] At the time, it was known then as the Bueyeros Field.[19]

Bueyeros Field map, 1959. Credit: New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology

By 1931, industrialists drilled the first CO2 wells in New Mexico for the manufacture of dry ice and constructed the first pipeline in the region in 1932.[20][21] The Harding County portion of the Bravo Dome was discovered in 1935.[22] In its early years, uses for the Bravo Dome's CO2 included fire extinguishers, carbonated water and beverages, and as a food preservative.[23]

"The principal use of solid carbon dioxide, or dry ice, is as a refrigerant. It is especially useful in the long-distance shipment of fruits, vegetables, flowers, chemicals, and medicines," explains a 1959 report published by the New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology. "Pound for pound, it is from 10 to 15 times as effective as water ice for these purposes, and it is much less bulky."

Witt Ice and Gas Co. Plant near Bueyeros Field. Credit: New Mexico Institute of Mining and Technology

"In recent years, large quantities of dry ice have been and are being used by research laboratories where precise temperature control is necessary," the report continues. "The biggest market for ice produced in New Mexico, reportedly, is with the White Sands Missile Range, Holloman Air Force Base, Sandia Base, and Los Alamos laboratory."[24]

As of 1942, 26 commercial CO2 wells flowed in New Mexico. [25] By 1958, Bueyeros Field had gone down to 11 operational CO2 wells and the product moved to market via truck or rail.[26]

CO2 leases in service to CO2 enhanced oil recovery began anew for the Bravo Dome in the 1970's, as it became clear that the industry could achieve commercialization using the drilling technique.[27] Construction on the first CO2 well at the Bravo happened in 1980.[28]

No Accounting for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Natural CO2 Source Fields disclose their production levels under Subpart PP of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule, which is a self-reporting mechanism. As a CO2 producer under that subpart, the company must only report its production levels and not its emissions under the statute. A total of 3.5 million metric tons of Bravo Dome CO2 was injected underground in 2019, according to EPA data.[29]

The operative language of Subpart PP of the Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting statute reads, "The owner or operator of a CO2 production well facility must maintain quarterly records of the mass flow or volumetric flow of the extracted or transferred CO2 stream and concentration and density if volumetric flow meters are used."[30]

CO2 enhanced oil recovery wells, a key component of Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage, also must report emissions generated via the production activity under the Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule via Subpart UU of the Mandatory Greenhouse Gas Reporting statute."[31] The CO2 EOR wells linked to the Bravo Dome report zero emissions, despite numerous scientific studies pointing to contrary evidence.[32]

CO2 EOR Climate Impacts

Multiple studies have pointed to the climate change impacts of beefing up CO2 enhanced oil recovery. They come with the backdrop of a 2019 U.S. Department of Energy report concluding that there has been "no official mechanism for reporting leaks" of CO2 for most of the history of CO2 EOR production. "In addition, little information is available on project post-closure status and CO2 behavior in the subsurface post-injection," the report continues.[33]

A 2019 study published in the journal Applied Energy concludes that "from [a] thermodynamics point of view, CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) with CCS option is not sustainable, i.e., during the life cycle of the process more energy is consumed than the energy produced from oil."[34]

A decade earlier, another study came to the same conclusion: CO2 EOR is a carbon-positive emissions drilling process. That paper, published by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, surmised that “without displacement of a carbon intensive energy source, CO2-EOR systems will result in net carbon emissions.”

"We calculated that between 3.7 and 4.7 metric tons of CO2 are emitted for every metric ton of CO2 injected. The fields currently inject and sequester less than 0.2 metric tons of CO2 per bbl of oil produced," the researchers further detailed. "In order to entirely offset system emissions, e.g., making the net CO2 emissions zero, 0.62 metric tons of CO2 would need to be injected and permanently sequestered for every bbl of oil produced. The only way to sequester this amount of CO2 would be to operate a sequestration project concurrently with the CO2-EOR project."[35]

In 2020, researchers June Sekera and Andreas Lichtenberger came to similar summations in doing a survey of over 200 studies done on Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage to date with regards to greenhouse gas emissions in their paper titled, "Assessing Carbon Capture: Public Policy, Science, and Societal Need: A Review of the Literature on Industrial Carbon Removal."

"We found that papers that deem CCS-EOR to be a climate mitigation technique either fail to account for all emissions (i.e., they perform only a partial life cycle analysis) and/or they make an assumption that CCS-EOR-produced oil 'displaces' conventionally produced fossil fuel energy," they wrote, surmising instead that "data show that the process actually results in net emissions."[36]

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency data further shows that at the CO2 treatment facilities servicing some of the major CO2 EOR fields at Texas' Permian Basin, the facilities emit high levels of carbon dioxide and other copollutants into the atmosphere.

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One of them, the SACROC CO2 treatment facility servicing the SACROC CO2 EOR field -- operated by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners -- emitted 425,971.5 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019.[37] That amounts to 92,640 passenger vehicles driven for a year and 77,375 homes' electricity use for one year, according to the EPA's Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator.[38] The SACROC facility also emits high levels of PM 10, VOCs, ammonia, PM 2.5, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, methane, NOx, and sulfur dioxide, according to EPA pollution data.[39]

The Denver Unit and Wasson CO2 removal plans, both of which service the Denver Unit CO2 EOR field, also emitted a total of 153,035.7 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019. [40][41] That equates to 33,282 passenger vehicles driven for one year and 27,798 homes' electricity use for one year.[42]

Occidental's Denver City CO2 removal plant in Denver City, Texas. Credit: Google Maps.

The Denver Unit CO2 removal plant also emits high levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, as well as PM 2.5 and PM 10, according to the EPA Air Pollutant Report for the facility.[43] The separation facility is located within three miles of over 5,100 people, 66% of whom are people of color and over 75% of whom have a family income of below $75,000 per year. Only just above 15% of the population in that 3-mile radius has a college degree and 63% of the population in that radius has a Latinx ethnic origin.[44][45]

Denver City CO2 removal plant next to oil rigs. Photo Credit: Google Maps

According to Texas Center on Environmental Quality data, the Wasson CO2 Removal Plant owned by Occidental also emitted 19,312 pounds of carbon monoxide via designated illegal air pollution incidents into the atmosphere between January 1, 2020 and February 24, 2021. The facility also emitted over 3,400 pounds of H2S; over 15,700 pounds of non-methane, non-ethane natural gas; over 2,250 pounds of oxides of nitrogen; and over 314,000 pounds of sulfur dioxide[46]

Between January 2020 and March 14, 2021, Occidental's Anton CO2 dehydration plant in Shallowater, Texas had 11,800 pounds of carbon monoxide incidents, 637 pounds of H2S; over 9,200 pounds of non-methane, non-ethane natural gas; and over 56,300 pounds of SO2, and 1,672 pounds of NOx.[47]

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And between June 2020 through January 2021, the company's Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant had incident events which emitted over 40,400 pounds of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere, more than 65 pounds of H2S, over 23,200 pounds of non-methane/non-ethane natural gas, over 5,000 pounds of NOx, and over 6,000 pounds of SO2.[48]

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Three of the company's CO2 processing plants sit within the top ten most polluting facilities in Texas when ranked by SO2 emissions, according to a 2020 report by the group Environment Texas, when ranked by illegal air pollution events. They include the West Seminole San Andres Unit CO2 facilities, the Seminole Gas Processing Plant, and the Willard CO2 Separation Plant. But when measuring all co-pollutants, five of the top six polluters in the TCEQ's Region 2 (Lubbock) are CO2 separation/removal/recovery plants.[49]

Top 10 polluters for TCEQ Region 2. Credit: Environment Texas
Willard CO2 Plant in Denver City, Texas. Credit: Google Maps

The main Permian-area gas plants which create carbon as a by-product, thusly used for CO2 EOR production, are also highly polluting, according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data.

The Pikes Peak Gas Plant -- located in Fort Stockton, Texas and operated by Occidental -- is in the 87.8 percentile for PM 2.5 emitted into the atmosphere, 92.7 percentile for ozone, 86.1 for other air toxics, and on the 83.9 percentile for respiratory hazard index.[50] The plant also emits high levels of benzene, formaldehyde, toluene, carbon monoxide, ethylbenzene, xylene, VOCs, hexane and climate change-causing CO2 into the atmosphere, according to other EPA data.[51]

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The Terrell Gas Plant in Sheffield, Texas shows similar attributes, sitting in the 68.9 percentile for PM 2.5, 70.3 for ozone, 67.8 for air toxics cancer risk, and 66.7 for respiratory hazard index.[52] Like Pikes Peak, the plant is operated by Occidental. The facility also emits high levels of VOCs, formaldehyde, CO2, methane, toluene, acetaldehyde, benzene, carbon monoxide, PM 2.5, acrolein, SO2, hexane, methanol, and NOx into the atmosphere.[53] Greenhouse gas emissions data from the EPA shows that the facility emitted 50,011 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019. [54]

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Beyond Texas, at Denbury's Bogue Chitto, Mississippi's CO2 EOR site, the company emits high levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), hexane, carbon monoxide, VOCs, benzene, formaldehyde, and PM 2.5, according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency data.[55]

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Royalties Litigation

At the time of its onset, the land leasing frenzy for the Bravo Dome was the largest unitization and forced pooling in United States history at over 1.1 million acres in size.[56] The unitization was originally challenged in federal court by landowners,[57] but ultimately struck down. [58]

With some of the CO2 sitting on federal land, Amoco—operator of the field before Occidental—underpaid the federal government for royalties owed, charged $365,000 in an August 2001 federal legal settlement.[59] The pooling decision was made before the full contours of the legal field were even known, which was one point of contention in a 1981 state lawsuit,[60] but a state court upheld the unitization agreement in a ruling a year later.[61] In a 2000 lawsuit filed brought by the State of New Mexico, the state argued that Occidental bilked it of $30 million owed on royalties from land leases as part of the Bravo Dome Unit. New Mexico won an $11.6 million judgment in 2006.[62]

“This is a great day for New Mexico’s school children, as they will benefit from this settlement,” Commissioner of Public Lands Patrick Lyons said in a press release of the settlement. [63]

A class-action lawsuit among Bravo Dome-area landowners also culminated in 1998, with a $50 million settlement on royalty payments underpaid for the 15 years prior, worth perhaps $75 million after a future adjustment on the calculation of royalties. The settlement impacted 2,400 royalty owners.[64]

1985 Tax Legislation Scandal

In 1985, New Mexico Senator Budd Hebert (R-Chavez) proposed legislation that would have eliminated a severance tax for a 12-year period[65] on CO2 production at the Bravo Dome. He proposed the legislation, which did not pass due to a last-minute filibuster in the New Mexico Senate, as he would have personally profited from it.

According to an investigation by the Albuquerque Journal, Hebert had concurrently owned a 25% stake in a company which was a joint venture production partner of Mobil, with ambitions to work with Mobil to do CO2 EOR production using the carbon extracted at the Bravo Dome.[66] Hebert owned the 25% stake alongside a member of the New Mexico House of Representatives, Robert Light (D-Eddy), who served as author of the House version of the legislation.[67] The tax break would have boosted sales to a total of $6 billion from Bravo Dome to the CO2 source fields via the Cortez Pipeline, the Associated Press reported at the time of the proposed bill, SB 207.[68]

In reaction to the Albuquerque Journal's reporting, the state's Attorney General said the state's conflict-of-interest laws were too lax because what Hebert and Eddy did was perfectly legal under the letter of the law. "The public needs confidence in the process, but how can they have it if legislators are allowed to promote bills without disclosing their interest?" the Attorney General, Paul Bardacke, said at the time in an interview with the Journal. Eddy defended himself by saying the bill was written by Shell, then the predominant operator at the Bravo Dome, and not Mobil.[69]

The company Worth Petroleum filed a lawsuit against Mobil in 1986,[70] saying the business connection Hebert had acted as an illegal inducement to push legislation favorable for certain oil companies, with the parties coming to an out-of-court monetary legal settlement just days before a jury trial's slated commencement.[71]

Local Economic Dependence

In Union County, New Mexico, more than 20% of tax revenues stems from the Bravo Dome. Harding County, New Mexico gets 70-80% of its tax dollars from the Bravo Dome.[72]

Sequestering vs. Recycling

During the CO2 EOR process, CO2 is not merely stored underground immediately. Instead, it is recycled as part of what the Global CCS Institute describes as a "closed loop," which "reduces the need to purchase additional CO2."[73]

A closed-loop CO2 EOR system, exhibited in a 2013 NETL report.

A 1976 study commissioned by the Federal Energy Administration pointed out that, from the onset, CO2 EOR would not be economically feasible for the oil industry without recycling technology. The study explained the industry will necessitate "major improvements in...recycling...before the full potential of this recovery tech­nique can be realized."[74]

As early as 1981, a petroleum engineering coordinator for Shell told colleagues at the Society for Petroleum Engineers that CO2 for CO2 enhanced oil recovery should be recycled because it "is a very valuable commodity" and "it does involve large amounts for oil recovery."[75]

In 1991, a production supervisor at Shell at the Jackson Dome further explained, "We're recycling everything we produce. Eventually the flood will be mature enough that all we'll be doing is recycling. We won't have to bring any more down from Jackson Dome."[76]

In 2016, the U.S. Department of Interior's Office of Natural Resources Revenue also explained the CO2 EOR process as one centering around recycling in a legal ruling pertaining to disputes over royalty payments at the Bravo Dome. "At the surface, the CO2 is separated from the oil," explains the filing. "The oil is sold and the CO2 reused again in the EOR reservoir. This means the CO2 is part of a continual process and is not sold."[77]

In a 2018 presentation, Denbury further concluded that by 15 years into a CO2 EOR operation, 20% of its CO2 will be recycled. By 20 years, that number goes up to 50%. By 25 years, that number goes up to 70% and by 30 years, that number goes up to 80% recycled.[78]

The U.S. Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory put it more simply in a 2019 paper on CO2 EOR, writing, "the objective of CO2 EOR operations is not to store CO2, but to maximize oil production. However, some of the injected CO2 ultimately does get stored in the reservoir as part of the process.[79]

“The need for the field to purchase new CO2 is gradually reduced over time,” further explains a 2019 paper published by the U.S. Department of Energy. “As a result, a greater percentage of the CO2 injected is from production, separation, and recycling versus newly-purchased CO2.” That paper further explained that “approximately half has been recovered and recycled” and more broadly “CO2 EOR operators try to maximize oil and gas production and minimize the amount of CO2 left in the reservoir.”[80]

A 2010 paper by the National Energy Technology Laboratory also explains the exact money saved by doing the recycling process, writing that "Because of the cost of naturally sourced CO2—roughly $10-15 per metric ton—a CO2 flood operator seeks to recycle as much as possible to minimize future purchases of the gas."[81]

Articles and Resources

Related GEM.wiki articles

References

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  2. ↑ "Bravo Pipeline Company," Occidental Petroleum Corporation, accessed May 2021
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  4. ↑ "Kinder Morgan - Form 10-K," U.S. Securities and Exchange Commission, Fiscal Year 2019
  5. ↑ Nelson, Cody, "Inside the Dirty, Dangerous World of Carbon Flooding," Capital & Main, April 5, 2021
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  18. ↑ Robinson, Sherry, "CO2 Pumping Life Into Stale Economy: 3-County Area Celebrates Revival," Albuquerque Journal, July 29, 1984
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  27. ↑ "Oil Firms Eye Carbon Dioxide Rights," Albuquerque Journal, Jan. 3, 1978
  28. ↑ Graham, W.H., "C02 Injection Well Set," Carlsbad Current-Argus, Associated Press, Jan. 15, 1980
  29. ↑ "Bravo Dome," Facility Level Information on GreenHouse gases Tool (FLIGHT), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, accessed May 2021
  30. ↑ Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, "Suppliers of Carbon Dioxide," Title 40, Chapter I, Subchapter C, Part 98, Subpart PP. Accessed May 2021
  31. ↑ Electronic Code of Federal Regulations, "Injection of Carbon Dioxide," Title 40, Chapter I, Subchapter C, Part 98, Subpart UU. Accessed May 2021
  32. ↑ "CO2 enhanced oil recovery - Climate, Air Quality Impacts," Global Energy Monitor Wiki, accessed May 2021
  33. ↑ Vikara, Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  34. ↑ R. Farajzadeh, A.A. Eftekhari, Et Al, [https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0306261919321555?token=380B7BA44986AA1F55E1FB5149D68E180D997BF390A63DE26F70A9D7D25A907CE5B3855A290D5149873F54C09BFC533B&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20210510001340 "On the sustainability of CO2 storage through CO2–Enhanced oil recovery," Applied Energy, 261 (2020) 114467, Jan. 17, 2020
  35. ↑ P. Jaramillo, W. Michael Griffin, S. McCoy, "Life Cycle Inventory of CO2 in an Enhanced Oil Recovery System," Environmental Science & Technology, 2009, 43, 8027–8032, Sept. 14, 2009
  36. ↑ J. Sekera, A. Lichtenberger, "Assessing Carbon Capture: Public Policy, Science, and Societal Need: A Review of the Literature on Industrial Carbon Removal," Biophysical Economics and Sustainability, (2020) 5:14, Oct. 6, 2020
  37. ↑ "SACROC CO2 Treatment," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  38. ↑ "Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator - Equivalency Results," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, accessed May 2021
  39. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - SACROC CO2 Facility, Snyder, Texas," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  40. ↑ "Wasson CO2 Removal Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  41. ↑ "Denver Unit CO 2 Recovery Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  42. ↑ "Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator - Equivalency Results," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, accessed May 2021
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  45. ↑ "x":-102.8172,"y":32.98019,"spatialReference":{"wkid":4326}}&unit=9035&areatype=&areaid=&basemap=streets&distance=3 "EJSCREEN Report (Version 2020) - Denver Unit CO2 Removal Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EJSCREEN, accessed May 2021
  46. ↑ "Wasson CO2 Removal Plant," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  47. ↑ "Anton CO2 Re-Injection Facility," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  48. ↑ "Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  49. ↑ Fraser, Catherine, "Illegal Air Pollution in Texas 2020," Environment Texas, Oct. 2020
  50. ↑ "Detailed Facility Report - Pikes Peak Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO), accessed May 2021
  51. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - Pikes Peak Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accesed May 2021
  52. ↑ "Detailed Facility Report - Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance Online (ECHO) accessed May 2021
  53. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance Online (ECHO), accessed May 2021
  54. ↑ "Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  55. ↑ - "Air Pollutant Report - DENBURY ONSHORE LLC, 1043 MOUNT OLIVE ROAD, BOGUE CHITTO, MS," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  56. ↑ U.S. Court of Appeals for the 10th Circuit, "Amoco Production Company v. Leland M. Jacobs and Ethel D. Jacobs," Law.Resource.Org, accessed May 2021
  57. ↑ "Court Mulls Challenge to Amoco's CO2 Recovery Pact," Platt's Oilgram News, Dec. 21, 1981
  58. ↑ [https://drive.google.com/file/d/1q3zlpckm9z5t5Z-QqSw7s192sSaSSUZl/view "U.S. Court Backs Amoco on Unitization Program at Bravo Dome," Platt's Oilgram News, Oct. 15, 1984
  59. ↑ "Federal government getting $365,000 in royalties," Associated Press, Aug. 10, 2001
  60. ↑ "Court Mulls Challenge to Amoco's CO2 Recovery Pact," Platt's Oilgram News, Dec. 21, 1981
  61. ↑ "Court Upholds Amoco's N.M. CO2 Unitization," Platt's Oilgram News, April 13, 1982
  62. ↑ "N.M. Collects $11.6 Million, Royalties on Gas Were Underpaid," Associated Press, March 11, 2006
  63. ↑ "Land Commissioner Collects $11.6 Million in Underpaid Royalties," New Mexico State Land Office, April 20, 2006
  64. ↑ "Lawsuit over royalties settled," Associated Press, May 29, 1998
  65. ↑ "Texas Firm Sues Over Eddy Oil Deal," Associated Press, March 21, 1986
  66. ↑ Ward, Leah Beth, "Ethics scandal from onset for CO2 extraction at McElmo Dome," Albuquerque Journal, June 9, 1985
  67. ↑ Ward, Leah Beth, "NM State Senator CO2 Extraction Scandal," Albuquerque Journal, June 9, 1985
  68. ↑ "Southeast NM senator under fire: Paper says drilling contract went to sponsor of tax break," Associated Press, June 10, 1985
  69. ↑ "AG: Conflict-Of-Interest Laws Lacking," Albuquerque Journal, June 12, 1985
  70. ↑ "Texas Firm Sues Over Eddy Oil Deal," Associated Press, March 21, 1986
  71. ↑ Beth Ward, Leah, "Texas Oil Firms Settle N.M. Dispute," Albuquerque Journal, Jan. 17, 1989
  72. ↑ Nelson, Cody"Why energy companies are drilling for a greenhouse gas in New Mexico," New Mexico Political Report, Dec. 14, 2020
  73. ↑ Whittaker, Steve; Perkins, Ernie, "Technical aspects of CO2 EOR and associated carbon storage," Global CCS Institute, Oct. 2013
  74. ↑ J.P. Brashear, V.A. Kuuskraa, "The Potential and Economics of Enhanced Oil Recovery," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Sept. 1, 1978
  75. ↑ Yancey, Royce, "Recycling CO2 reduces recovery cost," Fort Worth Star-Telegram, March 22, 1981
  76. ↑ Stewart, Steve, "Shell committed to oil recovery," Enterprise-Journal, March 31, 1989
  77. ↑ "United States Department of Interior v. Amerada Hess Corporation - appeal Denied; Order Modified" Office of Natural Resources Revenue, Sept. 13, 2016
  78. ↑ "EOR Carbon Management Workshop", CO2 Conference, Dec. 8, 2015
  79. ↑ D. Vikara, A. Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  80. ↑ Vikara, Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  81. ↑ "Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery: Untapped Domestic Energy Supply and Long Term Carbon Storage Solution," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, March 2010

External links

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