Doe Canyon

From Global Energy Monitor
This article is part of the Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker, a project of Global Energy Monitor.
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Doe Canyon is a natural carbon source field[1] located in southwestern Colorado, operated primarily by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners. It is a leasehold unit which sits one county to the north of the most prolific of the Natural CO2 Source Fields in the world, the McElmo Dome.[2] The carbon produced there is crucial for oil drilling as an injectant for CO2 enhanced oil recovery (CO2 EOR) in Texas' Permian Basin, the global epicenter of CO2 EOR for Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage (CCUS). It is one of the five major producing Natural CO2 Source Fields in the United States and is 53,000 acres in size.[3]

The Doe Canyon carbon is sent via the 500-mile Cortez Pipeline to Texas' Permian Basin in which the produced carbon is injected under the ground to free up an additional 8-20% of oil. Cortez Pipeline, when created, was a joint venture between Continental Resources, Shell, and Mobil.[4] In 1980, the U.S. Bureau of Land Management approved a right-of-way for 100 miles of public lands for what would become the Cortez Pipeline.[5] Occidental acquired Doe Canyon via a swap with BP in 2007.[6]

CO2 EOR is also sometimes called "carbon flooding" or "tertiary recovery."[7]

Natural carbon dioxide is currently the source of over 80% of the CO2 for CO2 EOR in the United States[8] and CO2 EOR currently is the final carbon sink for nine of the ten biggest U.S.-based Carbon Capture and Storage (CCS) projects currently commercially operational.[9] Traditionally known as CCS, CO2 EOR is a central component of a rebranding effort which began in 2012 known as CCUS, or carbon capture utilization and storage. The "U" in CCUS, in this case, is using carbon to drill for more oil.[10]

According to a 2014 U.S. Department of Energy study, 97% of the industrial marketed carbon is used for CO2 EOR.[11]

A 2020 academic study concluded that CO2 enhanced oil recovery using CO2 source fields like the Jackson Dome, McElmo Dome, Bravo Dome, Sheep Mountain, and Doe Canyon “cannot contribute to reductions in anthropogenic CO2 emissions into the atmosphere.”[12] A study the year before, published by the U.S. Department of Energy echoed that conclusion, writing that CO2 production for CO2 EOR "does not contribute towards a net reduction in CO2 emissions to the atmosphere."[13] Multiple studies have also called into question the climate benefits of CO2 EOR production even with anthropogenic carbon, pointing to the process as a net-positive greenhouse gas emitting process.[14]

Location

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Field Details

Comparison to Oil, Gas Drilling

An industry engineer told the outlet Capital & Main that CO2 drilling is akin to drilling for oil and gas, at its core.

“It’s really the same tools, the same equipment, the same calculation going on. It’s just using different types of numbers,” the engineer stated. “But you find a CO2 source field, which obviously can be several thousand feet underground, and you move a drilling rig in and you drill for it.”[17]

No Accounting for Greenhouse Gas Emissions

Natural CO2 Source Fields disclose their production levels under Subpart PP of the U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)'s Greenhouse Gas Reporting Rule, which is a self-reporting mechanism. As a CO2 producer, the company only must report its production levels and not its emissions under the statute. 30 million cubic feet of Doe Canyon CO2 was produced in 2020, according to Colorado state data.[18]

CO2 EOR Climate Impacts

Multiple studies have pointed to the climate change impacts of beefing up CO2 enhanced oil recovery. They come with the backdrop of a 2019 U.S. Department of Energy report concluding that there has been "no official mechanism for reporting leaks" of CO2 for most of the history of CO2 EOR production. "In addition, little information is available on project post-closure status and CO2 behavior in the subsurface post-injection," the report continues.[19]

A 2019 study published in the journal Applied Energy concludes that "from [a] thermodynamics point of view, CO2 enhanced oil recovery (EOR) with CCS option is not sustainable, i.e., during the life cycle of the process more energy is consumed than the energy produced from oil."[20]

A decade earlier, another study came to the same conclusion: CO2 EOR is a carbon-positive emissions drilling process. That paper, published by researchers at Carnegie Mellon University in the journal Environmental Science & Technology, surmised that “without displacement of a carbon intensive energy source, CO2-EOR systems will result in net carbon emissions.”

"We calculated that between 3.7 and 4.7 metric tons of CO2 are emitted for every metric ton of CO2 injected. The fields currently inject and sequester less than 0.2 metric tons of CO2 per bbl of oil produced," the researchers further detailed. "In order to entirely offset system emissions, e.g., making the net CO2 emissions zero, 0.62 metric tons of CO2 would need to be injected and permanently sequestered for every bbl of oil produced. The only way to sequester this amount of CO2 would be to operate a sequestration project concurrently with the CO2-EOR project."[21]

In 2020, researchers June Sekera and Andreas Lichtenberger came to similar summations in doing a survey of over 200 studies done on Carbon Capture Utilization and Storage to date with regards to greenhouse gas emissions in their paper titled, "Assessing Carbon Capture: Public Policy, Science, and Societal Need: A Review of the Literature on Industrial Carbon Removal."

"We found that papers that deem CCS-EOR to be a climate mitigation technique either fail to account for all emissions (i.e., they perform only a partial life cycle analysis) and/or they make an assumption that CCS-EOR-produced oil 'displaces' conventionally produced fossil fuel energy," they wrote, surmising instead that "data show that the process actually results in net emissions."[22]

U.S. Environmental Protection Agency data further shows that at the CO2 treatment facilities servicing some of the major CO2 EOR fields at Texas' Permian Basin, the facilities emit high levels of carbon dioxide and other copollutants into the atmosphere.

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One of them, the SACROC CO2 treatment facility servicing the SACROC CO2 EOR field -- operated by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners -- emitted 425,971.5 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019.[23] That amounts to 92,640 passenger vehicles driven for a year and 77,375 homes' electricity use for one year, according to the EPA's Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator.[24] The SACROC facility also emits high levels of PM 10, VOCs, ammonia, PM 2.5, carbon monoxide, formaldehyde, methane, NOx, and sulfur dioxide, according to EPA pollution data.[25]

The Denver Unit and Wasson CO2 removal plans, both of which service the Denver Unit CO2 EOR field, also emitted a total of 153,035.7 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019. [26][27] That equates to 33,282 passenger vehicles driven for one year and 27,798 homes' electricity use for one year.[28]

Occidental's Denver City CO2 removal plant in Denver City, Texas. Credit: Google Maps.

The Denver Unit CO2 removal plant also emits high levels of sulfur dioxide, nitrogen oxides, carbon monoxide, as well as PM 2.5 and PM 10, according to the EPA Air Pollutant Report for the facility.[29] The separation facility is located within three miles of over 5,100 people, 66% of whom are people of color and over 75% of whom have a family income of below $75,000 per year. Only just above 15% of the population in that 3-mile radius has a college degree and 63% of the population in that radius has a Latinx ethnic origin.[30][31]

Denver City CO2 removal plant next to oil rigs. Photo Credit: Google Maps

According to Texas Center on Environmental Quality data, the Wasson CO2 Removal Plant owned by Occidental also emitted 19,312 pounds of carbon monoxide via designated illegal air pollution incidents into the atmosphere between January 1, 2020 and February 24, 2021. The facility also emitted over 3,400 pounds of H2S; over 15,700 pounds of non-methane, non-ethane natural gas; over 2,250 pounds of oxides of nitrogen; and over 314,000 pounds of sulfur dioxide[32]

Between January 2020 and March 14, 2021, Occidental's Anton CO2 dehydration plant in Shallowater, Texas had 11,800 pounds of carbon monoxide incidents, 637 pounds of H2S; over 9,200 pounds of non-methane, non-ethane natural gas; and over 56,300 pounds of SO2, and 1,672 pounds of NOx.[33]

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And between June 2020 through January 2021, the company's Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant had incident events which emitted over 40,400 pounds of carbon monoxide into the atmosphere, more than 65 pounds of H2S, over 23,200 pounds of non-methane/non-ethane natural gas, over 5,000 pounds of NOx, and over 6,000 pounds of SO2.[34]

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Three of the company's CO2 processing plants sit within the top ten most polluting facilities in Texas when ranked by SO2 emissions, according to a 2020 report by the group Environment Texas, when ranked by illegal air pollution events. They include the West Seminole San Andres Unit CO2 facilities, the Seminole Gas Processing Plant, and the Willard CO2 Separation Plant. But when measuring all co-pollutants, five of the top six polluters in the TCEQ's Region 2 (Lubbock) are CO2 separation/removal/recovery plants.[35]

Top 10 polluters for TCEQ Region 2. Credit: Environment Texas
Willard CO2 Plant in Denver City, Texas. Credit: Google Maps

The main Permian-area gas plants which create carbon as a by-product, thusly used for CO2 EOR production, are also highly polluting, according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) data.

The Pikes Peak Gas Plant -- located in Fort Stockton, Texas and operated by Occidental -- is in the 87.8 percentile for PM 2.5 emitted into the atmosphere, 92.7 percentile for ozone, 86.1 for other air toxics, and on the 83.9 percentile for respiratory hazard index.[36] The plant also emits high levels of benzene, formaldehyde, toluene, carbon monoxide, ethylbenzene, xylene, VOCs, hexane and climate change-causing CO2 into the atmosphere, according to other EPA data.[37]

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The Terrell Gas Plant in Sheffield, Texas shows similar attributes, sitting in the 68.9 percentile for PM 2.5, 70.3 for ozone, 67.8 for air toxics cancer risk, and 66.7 for respiratory hazard index.[38] Like Pikes Peak, the plant is operated by Occidental. The facility also emits high levels of VOCs, formaldehyde, CO2, methane, toluene, acetaldehyde, benzene, carbon monoxide, PM 2.5, acrolein, SO2, hexane, methanol, and NOx into the atmosphere.[39] Greenhouse gas emissions data from the EPA shows that the facility emitted 50,011 metric tons of CO2 into the atmosphere in 2019. [40]

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Beyond Texas, at Denbury's Bogue Chitto, Mississippi's CO2 EOR site, the company emits high levels of nitrogen oxides (NOx), hexane, carbon monoxide, VOCs, benzene, formaldehyde, and PM 2.5, according to U.S. Environmental Protection Agency data.[41]

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Community Impacts

The communities located near the McElmo Dome and Doe Canyon have documented many complaints against Kinder Morgan Energy Partners. Those include noise complaints about the Yellow Jacket Compressor Station and growth of community CO2 assets,[42][43] local road damage, grievances about power lines on agricultural properties,[44] and the sensing of foul-smelling odors which have led to public health impacts.

Yellow Jacket Compressor Station shown in presentation given by Kinder Morgan Energy Partners in 2014 presentation. Credit: Montezuma County Board of Commissioners

“I woke up with a headache, and could hear a constant roar from a well a mile away,” one resident said of public health concerns to a local media outlet. “Gas poured into our ravine, and my 90-year old mother-in-law breathed it in.”[45]

“I can hear it all day and all night right now,” another resident told the same local media outlet. “If you could make the noise go away, that would be nice.”[46]

“There’s no peace of mind when you go out to have a cup of coffee in the morning,” another source told a local independent media outlet. “The noise is 24/7. They shut that plant down maybe three times a year.” The source added that once the compressor station arrived nearby, "our house started vibrating."

Others told that outlet that once the compressor opened for business, they began "experiencing headaches, nose bleeds and sore throats."[47]

Residents have also filed complaints with the state about those issues.

"I often smell an 'industrial gas' smell around this county. It's new in the last 3 yrs," reads one of those complaints, filed with the Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission about the Cow Canyon Compressor Station in the McElmo Dome. "Alot (sic) of people seem to be experiencing sinus conditions that last several wks. at a time and or get sick in the summer. There's a constant greenish/brown haze on the southern and western horizons, when the wind's not blowing."[48]

Another resident said that same compressor station often sounds "like a jet engine."

"Then 4 seconds of silence. Repeat. I could see a white plume coming from 2 stacks, going at least as high as the stacks are high," reads that complaint. "What was being vented? Did they even report this? Kinder Morgan has a reputation for releasing all sorts of gas into the air... sometimes really nasty gas. Any release concerns me."[49]

That complainant, Gala Pock, was several years earlier booted from the Montezuma County Planning and Zoning Board for disputing CO2 pipeline permits and speaking out against the company. After telling a company representative to "Go to hell" at a Board meeting, during debate over a pipeline, Pock received a letter telling her she had been removed from the Board.[50]

Kinder Morgan also said at a county Board of Commissioners meeting in 2014, of requested duties to pay $1.5 million for local roads by Montezuma County residents who said its trucks had destroyed, that “We're here to make money" and paying for such roads would hinder those ambitions. "We've paid enough. We're being treated unfairly," the company's regulatory manager stated.[51]

The company also filed a lawsuit[52] against the county for its request to build powerlines underground, instead of above ground,[53] which farmers said would drop the value of their land in the area.[54] Kinder Morgan would eventually drop the lawsuit.[55]

In 2014, a local farmer said of this debate over where to lay the powerline that “The area is becoming a chokepoint for pipelines, powerlines, and irrigation...Commercial agriculture here is a huge part of the economy. My fear is that agriculture will die from 1,000 cuts.”[56]

Local Economic Dependence

The County Assessor's Office for Dolores County told Global Energy Monitor that "64% of our revenue comes from CO2 production" via Doe Canyon as of 2020.

Sequestering vs. Recycling

During the CO2 EOR process, CO2 is not merely stored underground immediately. Instead, it is recycled as part of what the Global CCS Institute describes as a "closed loop," which "reduces the need to purchase additional CO2."[57]

A closed-loop CO2 EOR system, exhibited in a 2013 NETL report.

A 1976 study commissioned by the Federal Energy Administration pointed out that, from the onset, CO2 EOR would not be economically feasible for the oil industry without recycling technology. The study explained the industry will necessitate "major improvements in...recycling...before the full potential of this recovery tech­nique can be realized."[58]

As early as 1981, a petroleum engineering coordinator for Shell told colleagues at the Society for Petroleum Engineers that CO2 for CO2 enhanced oil recovery should be recycled because it "is a very valuable commodity" and "it does involve large amounts for oil recovery."[59]

In 1991, a production supervisor at Shell at the Jackson Dome further explained, "We're recycling everything we produce. Eventually the flood will be mature enough that all we'll be doing is recycling. We won't have to bring any more down from Jackson Dome."[60]

In 2016, the U.S. Department of Interior's Office of Natural Resources Revenue also explained the CO2 EOR process as one centering around recycling in a legal ruling pertaining to disputes over royalty payments at the Bravo Dome. "At the surface, the CO2 is separated from the oil," explains the filing. "The oil is sold and the CO2 reused again in the EOR reservoir. This means the CO2 is part of a continual process and is not sold."[61]

In a 2018 presentation, Denbury further concluded that by 15 years into a CO2 EOR operation, 20% of its CO2 will be recycled. By 20 years, that number goes up to 50%. By 25 years, that number goes up to 70% and by 30 years, that number goes up to 80% recycled.[62]

The U.S. Department of Energy's National Energy Technology Laboratory put it more simply in a 2019 paper on CO2 EOR, writing, "the objective of CO2 EOR operations is not to store CO2, but to maximize oil production. However, some of the injected CO2 ultimately does get stored in the reservoir as part of the process.[63]

“The need for the field to purchase new CO2 is gradually reduced over time,” further explains a 2019 paper published by the U.S. Department of Energy. “As a result, a greater percentage of the CO2 injected is from production, separation, and recycling versus newly-purchased CO2.” That paper further explained that “approximately half has been recovered and recycled” and more broadly “CO2 EOR operators try to maximize oil and gas production and minimize the amount of CO2 left in the reservoir.”[64]

A 2010 paper by the National Energy Technology Laboratory also explains the exact money saved by doing the recycling process, writing that "Because of the cost of naturally sourced CO2—roughly $10-15 per metric ton—a CO2 flood operator seeks to recycle as much as possible to minimize future purchases of the gas."[65]

Articles and Resources

Related GEM.wiki articles

References

  1. ↑ W.L. Fisher, "Reduction of Greenhouse Gas Emissions Through Underground CO2 Sequestration in Texas Oil and Gas Reservoirs," University of Texas at Austin, Bureau of Economic Geology, 1999
  2. ↑ Binkly, Gail, "Is Kinder Morgan a good neighbor? Locals say yes — and no," Four Corners Free Press, Nov. 1, 2014
  3. ↑ "Overview of McElmo Dome Development Plans - Montezuma County Board of Commissioners," Kinder Morgan, Oct. 27, 2014
  4. ↑ "Continental, Shell, Mobil to Join in Carbon Dioxide Pipeline Project," The Daily Advertiser, June 10, 1982
  5. ↑ "BLM approves access for pipelines," The Santa Fe New Mexican, Dec. 6, 1980
  6. ↑ "Occidental, BP to swap oil, gas assets," Los Angeles Times, May 2, 2007
  7. ↑ Nelson, Cody, "Inside the Dirty, Dangerous World of Carbon Flooding," Capital & Main, April 5, 2021
  8. ↑ "Supply and Demand Analysis for Capture and Storage of Anthropogenic Carbon Dioxide in the Central U.S.," Working Document of the NPC Study Meeting the Dual Challenge: A Roadmap to At-Scale Development of Carbon Capture, Use, and Storage, U.S. Department of Energy, National Petroleum Council, Dec. 12, 2019
  9. ↑ Horn, Steve,"How A Fossil-Fuel-Friendly Policy Made Its Way Into The Biden Campaign’s Climate Plans," Drilled News, Sept. 23, 2020
  10. ↑ Endres, Cozen, Et Al, "Putting the U in carbon capture and storage: rhetorical boundary negotiation within the CCS/ CCUS scientific community," Journal of Applied Communication Research, Sept. 7, 2016
  11. ↑ "Subsurface Sources of CO2 in the Contiguous United States - Volume 1: Discovered Reservoirs," DOE/NETL-2014/1637, March 5, 2014
  12. ↑ R.Farajzadeh, A.A.Eftekhari, Et Al, "On the sustainability of CO2 storage through CO2 – Enhanced oil recovery," Applied Energy, March 1, 2020
  13. ↑ "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," DOE/NETL-2017/1865, National Energy Technology Laboratory, U.S. Department of Energy, Jan. 30, 2019
  14. ↑ "CO2 enhanced oil recovery - Climate, Air Quality Impacts," Global Energy Monitor, GEM Wiki, accessed May 2021
  15. ↑ "Doe Canyon Production - 2020," Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, accessed May 2021
  16. ↑ "Doe Canyon Production - 2020," Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, accessed May 2021
  17. ↑ Nelson, Cody, "Inside the Dirty, Dangerous World of Carbon Flooding," Capital & Main, April 5, 2021
  18. ↑ "Doe Canyon Production - 2020," Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, accessed May 2021
  19. ↑ Vikara, Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  20. ↑ R. Farajzadeh, A.A. Eftekhari, Et Al, [https://reader.elsevier.com/reader/sd/pii/S0306261919321555?token=380B7BA44986AA1F55E1FB5149D68E180D997BF390A63DE26F70A9D7D25A907CE5B3855A290D5149873F54C09BFC533B&originRegion=us-east-1&originCreation=20210510001340 "On the sustainability of CO2 storage through CO2–Enhanced oil recovery," Applied Energy, 261 (2020) 114467, Jan. 17, 2020
  21. ↑ P. Jaramillo, W. Michael Griffin, S. McCoy, "Life Cycle Inventory of CO2 in an Enhanced Oil Recovery System," Environmental Science & Technology, 2009, 43, 8027–8032, Sept. 14, 2009
  22. ↑ J. Sekera, A. Lichtenberger, "Assessing Carbon Capture: Public Policy, Science, and Societal Need: A Review of the Literature on Industrial Carbon Removal," Biophysical Economics and Sustainability, (2020) 5:14, Oct. 6, 2020
  23. ↑ "SACROC CO2 Treatment," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  24. ↑ "Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator - Equivalency Results," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, accessed May 2021
  25. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - SACROC CO2 Facility, Snyder, Texas," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  26. ↑ "Wasson CO2 Removal Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  27. ↑ "Denver Unit CO 2 Recovery Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse Gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  28. ↑ "Greenhouse Gas Equivalencies Calculator - Equivalency Results," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, accessed May 2021
  29. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  30. ↑ "Detailed Facility Report - Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  31. ↑ "x":-102.8172,"y":32.98019,"spatialReference":{"wkid":4326}}&unit=9035&areatype=&areaid=&basemap=streets&distance=3 "EJSCREEN Report (Version 2020) - Denver Unit CO2 Removal Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, EJSCREEN, accessed May 2021
  32. ↑ "Wasson CO2 Removal Plant," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  33. ↑ "Anton CO2 Re-Injection Facility," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  34. ↑ "Denver Unit CO2 Recovery Plant," Neighborhood Witness, accessed May 2021
  35. ↑ Fraser, Catherine, "Illegal Air Pollution in Texas 2020," Environment Texas, Oct. 2020
  36. ↑ "Detailed Facility Report - Pikes Peak Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online (ECHO), accessed May 2021
  37. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - Pikes Peak Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accesed May 2021
  38. ↑ "Detailed Facility Report - Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance Online (ECHO) accessed May 2021
  39. ↑ "Air Pollutant Report - Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance Online (ECHO), accessed May 2021
  40. ↑ "Terrell Gas Plant," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Facility Level Information on GreenHouse gases Tool (FLIGHT), accessed May 2021
  41. ↑ - "Air Pollutant Report - DENBURY ONSHORE LLC, 1043 MOUNT OLIVE ROAD, BOGUE CHITTO, MS," U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, Enforcement and Compliance History Online, accessed May 2021
  42. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Use of loud brakes at Kinder Morgan well gets county review," The Cortez Journal, Feb. 15, 2019
  43. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Noise at Kinder Morgan pumping plant irks neighbor," The Cortez Journal, Oct. 27, 2016
  44. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Farmers, KM wrangle on power lines; Plan for lines gets pushback," The Cortez Journal, Sept. 25, 2014
  45. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Well venting presents health risk," The Cortez Journal, Nov. 24, 2014
  46. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, ["Kinder Morgan to drill new well," The Cortez Journal, April 11, 2016
  47. ↑ Binkly, Gail, "Is Kinder Morgan a good neighbor?," Four Corners Free Press, May 1, 2012
  48. ↑ "COGIS - Complaint Reports - Yellow Jacket Compressor Station," Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, Sept. 25, 2017
  49. ↑ "COGIS - Complaint Reports - Yellow Jacket Compressor Station," Colorado Oil and Gas Conservation Commission, Feb. 4, 2020
  50. ↑ Livick, Shannon, "Board boots board member," The Cortez Journal, Oct. 21, 2014
  51. ↑ "Kinder Morgan balks at $1.5M road repair," The Cortez Journal, April 17, 2014
  52. ↑ Long, David, "Company sues county over permit requirements," Four Corners Free Press, Nov. 1, 2014
  53. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Kinder Morgan sues county," The Cortez Journal, Oct. 30, 2014
  54. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Kinder Morgan permits approved," The Cortez Journal, Nov. 20, 2014
  55. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Kinder Morgan drops lawsuit, powerline plan," The Cortez Journal, Dec. 18, 2014
  56. ↑ Mimiaga, Jim, "Kinder Morgan permits approved," The Cortez Journal, Nov. 20, 2014
  57. ↑ Whittaker, Steve; Perkins, Ernie, "Technical aspects of CO2 EOR and associated carbon storage," Global CCS Institute, Oct. 2013
  58. ↑ J.P. Brashear, V.A. Kuuskraa, "The Potential and Economics of Enhanced Oil Recovery," Journal of Petroleum Technology, Sept. 1, 1978
  59. ↑ Yancey, Royce, "Recycling CO2 reduces recovery cost," Fort Worth Star-Telegram, March 22, 1981
  60. ↑ Stewart, Steve, "Shell committed to oil recovery," Enterprise-Journal, March 31, 1989
  61. ↑ "United States Department of Interior v. Amerada Hess Corporation - appeal Denied; Order Modified" Office of Natural Resources Revenue, Sept. 13, 2016
  62. ↑ "EOR Carbon Management Workshop", CO2 Conference, Dec. 8, 2015
  63. ↑ D. Vikara, A. Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  64. ↑ Vikara, Wendt, Et Al, "CO2 Leakage During EOR Operations – Analog Studies to Geologic Storage of CO2," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, Jan. 30, 2019
  65. ↑ "Carbon Dioxide Enhanced Oil Recovery: Untapped Domestic Energy Supply and Long Term Carbon Storage Solution," U.S. Department of Energy, National Energy Technology Laboratory, March 2010

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