Energy profile: Mexico
Fuel mix (fossil fuels vs renewables)
Mexico derives more than 80% of its total energy supply from fossil fuels.[1] In 2019, oil contributed 45.20%, followed by natural gas (37.84%), coal (6.44%), biofuels (5.02%), wind and solar (2.75%), nuclear (1.62%), and hydro power (1.13%).[2]
In 2020, fossil fuels accounted for 64.50% of Mexico's installed electrical capacity and 72.15% of electrical generation. Additional electricity was generated by hydro (8.59%), wind (6.31%), solar (4.33%, up from 1.83% in 2019), biomass (3.49%), nuclear (3.48%), and geothermal energy (1.46%).[1][3]
The 2020-2034 national electrical system plan details Mexico's strategy for meeting supply and demand over fifteen years. CFE's Plan de Negocios 2022-2026 details the State's intentions for Mexican electricity over the course of five years.
Greenhouse gas emissions targets
As of 2020, Mexico's per capita CO2 emissions from fuel combustion (3.0 tons annually) were the third highest in Latin America and the Caribbean, though still relatively small by international standards, ranking only 52nd globally.[4] Mexico's NDC (Nationally Determined Contribution) plan calls for a 22% reduction in GHG emissions and a 51% reduction in black carbon emissions by 2030.[5][6]
Between 2017-2023, Mexico is undergoing a trial period with an Emissions Trading System (ETS).[7]
Government energy agencies & other key players
In October 2021, President Lopez-Obrador announced a new reform initiative which "[gives] the CFE its place" by giving CFE 54% of the market and maintaining the other 46% for private companies.[8] The reform is part of the President's larger plan to move towards nationalization of the energy marketplace in Mexico and is a response to the 2014 Energy Reform package.[9][10] Representatives of the renewable energy sector in Mexico argue that the reform would "dismantle the renewable energy industry" by prioritizing "dirty and more expensive" forms of energy.[11] Critics also stated that taxpayers can expect to foot the bill for the return to the centralized energy model.[12]
In April 2022, AMLO's bill to guarantee 54% of Mexico's electricity market to CFE fell short of the necessary two-thirds majority vote.[13][14] However, due to the support around the failed constitutional change even though the energy sector remained open to the private sector Mexico is now viewed as largely unattractive to most investors. Many Mexican citizens view the non-passage of the bill as a defense of transnational companies.[15]
National energy agencies
SENER (Secretaría de Energía) is the Mexican government authority in charge of energy policy.
Permitting agencies
SEMARNAT (Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales) is Mexico's main environmental authority, responsible for all aspects of environmental policy. Power plants and other large industrial projects are required to obtain a LAU (Licencia Ambiental Única) from SEMARNAT as a precondition of operating.[16]
PROFEPA (Procuraduría Federal de Protección al Ambiente) has additional environmental protection functions.
Regulatory agencies
CRE (Comisión Reguladora de Energía) is the government regulator for Mexico's oil, natural gas, biofuels, and electricity sectors.
Electric utilities
State-owned CFE (Comisión Federal de Electricidad) is Mexico's national electric utility company. CENACE (Centro Nacional de Control de Energía), a subdivision of CFE, is responsible for operating Mexico's national electrical grid.[17]
CFE maintains a website with information on Mexican energy tenders.
National oil & gas companies
State-owned Pemex (Petróleos Mexicanos) is one of Latin America's two largest petroleum companies.[18][19] It is involved in on- and offshore oil and gas development, including exploration, production, refining, and distribution.
State-owned CENAGAS (Centro Nacional de Control del Gas Natural) is in charge of Mexico's natural gas distribution and transmission.
Leading energy companies
Iberdrola, Naturgy, Sempra Energy, Fermaca, and TC Energy are among the largest private developers of energy projects in Mexico.
Electricity usage
Installed capacity
Mexico's installed capacity as of 2020 totalled 83.1 GW. Fossil fuels accounted for 64.50% of capacity (53.6 GW), followed by hydro (12.6 GW, 15.17%), wind (6.5 GW, 7.82%), and solar (5.1 GW, 6.19%).[1]
Production
Mexico generated 312 TWh of electricity in 2020[1] a slight decrease from its 2019 figure of 323.8 TWh[3] and its 2018 figure of 318 TWh.[20]
Consumption
Mexico consumed 271 TWh of electricity in 2018, ranking 14th in the world and 4th in the Western Hemisphere, behind the United States, Canada, and Brazil.[20]
Coal in Mexico
Domestic Production
Coal development in Mexico is concentrated in the northern state of Coahuila, which accounts for 99% of national production.[21][22] Mexico produced just over 11 million short tons of coal in 2019, ranking 23rd globally.[20]
In 2022, CFE released data which projected a 3,921 GWh increase in power generated from coal-fired power plants if the proposed electricity reform -Ley de la Industria Eléctrica (LIE)- passed.[23]
2021 studies have proposed the closure of multiple coal plants and to reroute resources for economic diversification.[24]The Program for the Rescue and Economic Diversification of the Coal Producing Region intend to reprioritize the actions of the local government to help protect the economic viability of the region as coal becomes a more controversial topic.[25][26]
Consumption
Mexico consumed nearly 21 million short tons of coal in 2019.[20]
Imports & source countries
Despite having its own domestic production, Mexico must still import coal to supply its three large coal-fired power plants: Carbon II, José López Portillo, and Petacalco.[21] Coal is mostly sourced from Australia, Colombia, Canada and the United States.[27]
Proposed new sources
In 2020 Mexican president Andrés Manuel López Obrador, who has regularly prioritized domestic fossil fuels over renewable energy projects, announced a government plan to ramp up coal production in Coahuila state, purchasing 2 million tons from small producers to supply Mexico's power plants and bolster the local economy.[28][29]
Proposed new projects
A new US$1.2 billion, 1400 MW coal-fired power plant has long been proposed for Coahuila state.[30][31][32] However, in November 2021 a top official of CFE (Mexico's federal electricity commission) stated that Mexico had no active plans to build any new coal plants,[33] which was reiterated in April 2022 at a meeting between Mexican president Andrés Manuel López Obrador and U.S. representative John Kerry.[34]
Oil & Natural Gas in Mexico
Domestic Production
Mexico produced 1.94 million barrels per day of petroleum and other liquids in 2020, ranking second in Latin America and the Caribbean (after Brazil) and 12th in the world.[20] In 2019, the country produced 34 billion cubic meters of dry natural gas, ranking third in the region (after Argentina and Trinidad and Tobago).[35]
Consumption
Mexico consumed more than 2 million barrels per day of petroleum products in 2018, ranking 11th globally.[20] Natural gas consumption for the year totaled 2.93 trillion cubic feet (7th in the world).[20]
The projects which would continue to support Mexico's steady consumption of oil and natural gas are contentious.[36]
Imports and exports
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Mexico is Latin America's second largest crude oil exporter (after Venezuela) and ranks 12th globally, with shipments totaling 1.28 million barrels per day in 2018.[20]
Mexico is the world's 7th largest importer of natural gas. Imports, which come mostly from the United States, totaled nearly 1.9 trillion cubic feet in 2018.[20] Thanks largely to the expansion of the US-Mexico pipeline system, imports have grown sharply over the last decade, and in 2018 imports surpassed domestic production for the first time to become Mexico's primary source of natural gas.[3] In 2021, natural gas imports from pipelines connecting with the United States accounted for 70% of Mexico's total gas supply (compared to 40% in 2015).[37]
Proposed new projects
A flurry of recently proposed LNG export terminal projects on Mexico's Pacific coast - including Costa Azul in Baja California, Mexico Pacific and AMIGO in Sonora, Vista Pacífico in Sinaloa and Salina Cruz in Oaxaca - seeks to capitalize on growing Asian demand and Mexico's excess natural gas capacity brought on by increased pipeline imports from the Permian Basin.[38][39][40][41]
Mexico's proposed Corredor Interoceánico, a massive, multi-faceted project linking Mexico's Gulf and Pacific coasts via the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, is slated to include significant expansion of the Jáltipan-Salina Cruz Pipeline, modernization of the Minatitlán and Salina Cruz refineries, and construction of major new infrastructure including the Salina Cruz LNG Terminal, the 812 MW Cogeneración Salina Cruz power station, and a deep draft port capable of serving large oil tankers in Salinas del Marqués.[42][43][44][45] Another major project announced in 2022, the Southeast Gateway Gas Pipeline, would significantly expand gas transport capacity between central and southeastern Mexico.[46]
Pipeline projects face opposition from activist and indigenous groups, which investors fear can pose a threat to new pipelines or pipeline expansions.[37]
Transport
Spanning more than 17,000 kilometers, Mexico's network of natural gas pipelines is the second most extensive in Latin America (after Argentina's) and the ninth largest in the world.[47] Mexico has substantially increased imports of natural gas from the United States in recent years via the Sur de Texas-Tuxpan Gas Pipeline and the Wahalajara pipeline network, which includes the Ojinaga-El Encino, El Encino-La Laguna, La Laguna-Aguascalientes, and Villa de Reyes-Aguascalientes-Guadalajara gas pipelines. Mexico also imports natural gas via the Altamira, Costa Azul, and Manzanillo LNG terminals, and is slated to begin exporting LNG in 2025 via the new Costa Azul Export Terminal.
Iron & Steel in Mexico
Mexico is Latin America's second largest producer of iron and steel (after Brazil), with 23,006 ttpa of steelmaking capacity and 15,040 ttpa of ironmaking capacity.[48] The country's largest steelmaker, Altos Hornos de México (AHMSA) in Coahuila state, still largely relies on older, more energy-intensive blast furnace / basic oxygen furnace technology. Several other large Mexican steel plants, including ArcelorMittal Lázaro Cárdenas , Ternium San Nicolás de los Garza, Deacero Celaya, TYASA, and TenarisTamsa, have adopted the less energy-intensive electric arc furnace method, which accounts for nearly two-thirds of Mexico's steelmaking capacity.
Renewable Energy in Mexico
The government of Andrés Manuel López Obrador has strongly favored domestic fossil fuels over renewables, posing challenges to clean energy development. Mexico has set lofty goals for including renewables in its energy mix - 35% by 2024, 40% by 2035, and 50% by 2050 - but appears unlikely to achieve these targets.[49] Mexico has some of the highest levels of solar radiation on earth, making it a prime candidate for photovoltaic energy projects.[49] During 2020, renewable energy investment was greatly hindered by the actions of CENACE.[50] Distributed solar generation is important to Mexico reaching its renewable energy goals.[51]
The October 2021 shift to a centralized energy model has put solar and wind energy lowest in the hierarchy of priorities as they are principally in the hands of private suppliers.[12] As of early 2022, the majority of wind generation in Mexico was held by five private companies and the majority of solar by six private companies.[52] Solar and wind farms have received pushback from indigenous communities who say the projects do not account for the needs of the local populations nor the flora and fauna.[53] Activist group are in support of renewable energy, but not the megaprojects which take advantage of a community and the intimidation tactics being used to coerce community officials.[54]
Geothermal energy in Mexico has large potential but is largely unexplored. The Cerro Prieto geothermal field is among the largest geothermal generating stations in the world.[55]
A 2021 study found Mexico has approximately 22 TW of green hydrogen potential.[56]
By 2028, Mexican renewables are projected to reach nearly 20GW- 59% from wind and 21% from hydro.[57] However, the Insituto Mexicano para la Competitividad argues the move to renewable energy sources is still insufficient to meet their energy transition commitments.[58]
Lithium
Research released in 2022 shows that there are 82 viable locations for lithium mining within Mexico.[59] As of April 2022, contracts assigned for lithium exploration and exploitation require special review as part of President AMLO's goal to keep lithium as "property of the Nation".[60][61]
Environmental & social impacts of energy in Mexico
Mexico's older, larger power plants -- including the coal-fired José López Portillo, Carbón II, and Petacalco and the gas-fired Manzanillo power station - are notoriously heavy polluters associated with numerous environmental, health, and safety concerns.[27][62][63] The Corredor Interoceánico del Istmo de Tehuantepec, a proposed mega-project designed to facilitate transfer of natural gas and other resources between Mexico's Gulf and Pacific coasts, has provoked sustained protests and blockades due to the developers' failure to consult with indigenous communities or obtain permission to enter their lands.[64][65][66]
EJ Atlas maintains an interactive map with energy-related infrastructure with a layer for points of conflict.
References
- ↑ 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.3 "Panorama Energético de América Latina y el Caribe 2021". OLADE. November 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "IEA Policies and Measures Database © OECD/IEA". IEA. Retrieved 2021-04-10.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 3.0 3.1 3.2 "Panorama energético de América Latina y el Caribe 2020 (p 98)". OLADE. November 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "IEA Energy Atlas". International Energy Agency. Retrieved 2021-06-20.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Intended Nationally Determined Contribution" (PDF). Gobierno de la República de México. September 21, 2016.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Contribución Determinada a Nivel Nacional" (PDF). Secretaría de Medio Ambiente y Recursos Naturales. December 30, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "SiCEM – Preparation of an Emissions Trading System (ETS) in Mexico". CLIMATE.BLUE. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
- ↑ Zarco, Jorge (October 1, 2021). "54% del mercado para CFE y 46% para los privados. Uno de los ejes de la Iniciativa de Reforma Constitucional enviada al Congreso en materia de generación eléctrica". PV Magazine. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Government closes privately-owned fuel terminals in move against oil industry". Mexico News Daily. September 22, 2021. Retrieved October 7, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Posibles impactos en Generación Distribuida de aprobarse la iniciativa de Reforma Constitucional en materia eléctrica". PV Magazine. October 22, 2021. Retrieved November 29, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Mexico's wind and solar energy businessmen reject electricity reform". Market Research Telecast. 2021-10-05. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
- ↑ 12.0 12.1 "Mexico's 'huge step backwards' on energy — and the environment". Deutsche Welle. October 15, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (March 1, 2022). "Tras 77 horas de análisis público, concluye el Parlamento Abierto. Es turno de las comisiones en diputados y del pleno aprobar, ajustar y/o rechazar la iniciativa. La reforma energética de 2013, sin análisis público sólo requirió de 4 horas para su aprobación". PV Magazine. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Fellows, University of Houston Energy. "Back To Mexico's Statist Energy Future". Forbes. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ Murray, Christine (2022-04-17). "Lawmakers gear up for Sunday's showdown vote on energy future". Mexico News Daily. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ "Preguntas Frecuentes para Realizar los Tramites de Licencia Ambiental Única (LAU) y Licencia de Funcionamiento (LF)" (PDF). Gobierno de México. Retrieved June 14, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Electricity regulation in Mexico: overview". Practical Law. Retrieved 2021-06-14.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Latin America's biggest national oil companies revise strategies, but Petrobras has profit advantage over PEMEX". Moody's. November 25, 2019.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Venezuela falls to fourth-largest oil producer in Latin America". World Oil. May 20, 2019.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 20.0 20.1 20.2 20.3 20.4 20.5 20.6 20.7 20.8 "Rankings - Mexico". U.S. Energy Information Administration (EIA). Retrieved 2021-06-15.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 21.0 21.1 "Mexico's CFE to buy 360,000t of coal: Update". Argus Media. March 21, 2019.
- ↑ "Panorama Minero del Estado de Coahuila (p 11)" (PDF). Servicio Geológico Mexicano. December 2019.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Transición energética en tiempos del carbón con "justicia social"". Animal Político (in español). Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ↑ "Sugieren a Coahuila pasar de carbón a renovables". www.elnorte.com (in español). Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ↑ "Programa para el Rescate y la Diversificación Económica de la Región Carbonífera". vanguardia.com.mx (in español). Retrieved 2022-04-27.
- ↑ "Perspectives from the coal industry in Mexico: A systems approach" (PDF). WWF. October 2021. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 27.0 27.1 Badillo, Diego (June 13, 2020). "Central carboeléctrica de Petacalco: la bonanza hecha cenizas". El Economista.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "El gobierno de México comprará toneladas de carbón para termoeléctricas". infobae. July 17, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Mexico was once a climate leader – now it's betting big on coal". The Guardian. February 15, 2021.
- ↑ "Nueva planta carboeléctrica en Coahuila aprobada en 2012". Energía Hoy. November 26, 2018.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Energías limpias, sofisma que usó la política neoliberal para beneficiar a particulares: AMLO". Animal Político. October 24, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "México incumple acuerdos de París, advierten expertos". El Economista. December 28, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "CFE no construirá centrales de carbón para generar energía". La Jornada. November 12, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (April 1, 2022). "Sempra, Exxon, Valero, Shell, Tesoro, Koch, empresas de Estados Unidos en México y sus opciones en el mercado energético nacional". PV Magazine. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "2020 Statistical Review of World Energy" (PDF). BP. June 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Sanzillo, Tom (February 2022). "New Fortress Energy: Promises to Keep" (PDF). Institute for Energy Economic and Financial Analysis. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 37.0 37.1 Proctor, Darrell (March 1, 2022). "U.S. Natural Gas Key to Mexico's Power Buildout". Power Magazine. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Mexico Pacific is lining up deals for 'black pearl of North American LNG'". S&P Global. April 21, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Dave Graham (August 21, 2020). "Exclusive: Mexico tacks on request to Sempra unit's LNG export permit, say sources". Reuters.
- ↑ "Sempra Energy and Partner Planning New LNG Terminal in Mexico". The TEX Report Ltd. November 26, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Carr, Housley (January 20, 2021). "They All Went to Mexico - Mexico Pacific Ltd.'s LNG Export Project in Puerto Libertad" (PDF). Mexico Pacific Limited. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "La 4T revive el proyecto gasero que Peña Nieto dejó inconcluso en el Istmo; advierten resistencias". El Universal Oaxaca. October 14, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Mapa interactivo: Corredor del Istmo de Tehuantepec". PODER (Proyecto sobre Organización, Desarrollo, Educación e Investigación). Retrieved 2021-01-28.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Corredor Interoceánico del Istmo operaría en 2023". T21. June 8, 2020.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Proyecto del Corredor del Istmo de Tehuantepec se blindará contra la privatización: presidente". Oficina del Presidente de México. March 19, 2021.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "TC Energy and Mexico's Comisión Federal de Electricidad announce a first-of-its-kind strategic partnership to develop world-class energy infrastructure in Mexico". TC Energy. August 4, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Summary Data – Global Fossil Infrastructure Tracker". GEM (Global Energy Monitor). Retrieved 2021-06-16.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Steel Dashboard". Global Energy Monitor. Retrieved 2021-04-12.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ 49.0 49.1 "¿Pueden las renovables llevar a una recuperación verde de América Latina?". Dialogo Chino. October 2, 2020.
- ↑ "Mexico blocks private renewables energy expansion". Dialogo Chino. 2020-09-07. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ "Generación Solar Distribuida en el Parlamento Abierto de San Lázaro". PV Magazine. February 24, 2022. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (March 2, 2022). ""Dependen 4 países en más del 40% de hidrocarburos para su generación de energía debido al incremento en el consumo de energías renovables que generan situaciones de vulnerabilidad"". PV Magazine. Retrieved April 29, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "Mexican communities reject Chinese solar farm in Yucatán". Dialogo Chino. 2020-05-05. Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ asambleamaya (2018-01-14). "Posicionamiento frente a la Evaluación Ambiental Estratégica sobre energía renovable en Yucatán". muuchxiinbal (in español). Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ GeoEnergy, Think (2021-03-15). "Opinion: Mexico electricity market overhaul and impact on geothermal". Retrieved 2022-04-29.
- ↑ "Mexico has 22TW of green hydrogen potential: Study | Argus Media". www.argusmedia.com. 2021-09-23. Retrieved 2021-10-07.
- ↑ "La gestión energética y las acciones ante el cambio climático en México". PV Magazine. March 7, 2022. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ "'Incrementó México su generación vía renovables de 21% a 27.5%, entre 2018-2021. Insuficiente para cumplir compromisos de transición energética'". PV Magazine. April 6, 2022. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (January 5, 2022). "Litio en ejidos e indispensable en la Transición Energética global". PV Magazine. Retrieved January 5, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (April 20, 2022). ""Only the contracts assigned for lithium exploration will be reviewed"". PV Magazine. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Zarco, Jorge (April 13, 2022). ""No podría haber carros eléctricos sin litio. El litio: Es oro blanco"". PV Magazine. Retrieved April 27, 2022.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Badillo, Diego (June 20, 2020). "Centrales eléctricas de Coahuila y el lado oscuro de la fiesta del carbón". El Economista.
{{cite web}}: CS1 maint: url-status (link) - ↑ Diego Badillo (June 27, 2020). "Termoeléctrica de Manzanillo, el anafre de Colima". El Economista.
- ↑ "Corredor del Istmo de Tehuantepec: Asociaciones Público-Privados y Sus Impactos Territoriales en MX". PODER. September 2020.
- ↑ "Por tercer día, campesinos mixes de 3 municipios de Oaxaca protestan contra el Corredor Interoceánico". El Universal: Oaxaca. March 10, 2021.
- ↑ "Ejidatarios de Mogoñé Viejo suspenden trabajos del Corredor Interoceánico". La Coperacha. May 14, 2021.
